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Pulse Amplitude Modulation In pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), the strength of each individual pulse varies according to the modulating waveform In this respect, PAM resembles AM An amplitude-versus-time graph of a hypothetical PAM signal is shown in Fig 25-8A Normally, the pulse amplitude increases as the instantaneous modulating-signal level increases (positive PAM) But this can be reversed, so higher audio levels cause the pulse amplitude to go down (negative PAM) Then the signal pulses are at their strongest when there is no modulation The transmitter works a little harder if negative PAM is used Pulse Width Modulation Another way to change the transmitter output is to vary the width (duration) of the pulses This is called pulse width modulation (PWM) or pulse duration modulation (PDM), and is shown in Fig 25-8B Normally, the pulse width increases as the instantaneous modulating-signal level increases (positive PWM) But this can be reversed (negative PWM) The transmitter must work harder to accomplish negative PWM Either way, the peak pulse amplitude remains constant Pulse Interval Modulation Even if all the pulses have the same amplitude and the same duration, modulation can still be accomplished by varying how often they occur In PAM and PWM, the pulses are always sent at the same time interval, known as the sampling interval But in pulse interval modulation (PIM), also called pulse frequency modulation (PFM), pulses can occur more or less frequently than they do when there is no modulation A hypothetical PIM signal is shown in Fig 25-8C Every pulse has the same amplitude and the same duration, but the time interval between them changes When there is no modulation, the pulses are evenly spaced with respect to time An increase in the instantaneous data amplitude might cause pulses to be sent more often, as is the case in Fig 25-8C ( positive PIM ) Or, an increase in instantaneous data level might slow down the rate at which the pulses are sent (negative PIM ) Pulse Code Modulation In recent years, the transmission of data has been done more and more by digital means In digital communications, the modulating data attains only certain defined states, rather than continuously varying Digital transmission offers better efficiency than analog transmission With digital modes, the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio is better, the bandwidth is narrower, and there are fewer errors In pulse-code modulation (PCM), any of the above aspects amplitude, duration, or interval of a pulse sequence (or pulse train) can be varied But rather than having infinitely many possible states, there are finitely many The number of states is a power of 2, such as 4, 8, or 16 The greater the number of states, the better the fidelity An example of 8-level PCM is shown in Fig 25-8D.

if myHour is less than 12 then set myGreeting to "Good morning!" else set myGreeting to "Good afternoon!" end if

This chapter covers some of my favorite Dynamic Management Views and Dynamic Management Functions in SQL Server 2005 and SQL Server 2008. I will start out by giving some background about DMVs. Then I will list some details about the individual views and functions that I use most frequently. Finally, I will show you some interesting queries you can use to take full advantage of the information that these objects expose.